Language Acquisition Research Articles

Technology's impact on language learning: Meta-analysis on variables and effectiveness

This study explores the correlation between technology utilization and language acquisition while analyzing the impact of moderating variables on this relation. Our meta-analysis approach analyzes data from 43 extracts out of 19 primary studies published between 2012 and 2021. Our data analysis employs a random-effect model utilizing a significance level of α = 0.05. Additionally, the authors examine four moderating variables: level of education, location of research, proficiency in language, and year of publication. Technology-based language acquisition outperforms traditional methods, indicating a significant and moderate impact on the learning process. This study enhances comprehension of the efficacy of technology in language acquisition by identifying various factors, such as the geographical location of research, methods of assessing language proficiency, and technology type employed. However, there is insufficient evidence to support the notion that educational level or sample size significantly impact technology-based language acquisition. This meta-analysis highlights the importance of considering nuanced factors when integrating technology into language learning. The findings emphasize the possibility of technology to transform methods of acquiring language and urge additional investigation into customized strategies that optimize its advantages.

Young Learner L2 Vocabulary Acquisition: Does the Revised Hierarchical Model Apply to Child Learners?

Vocabulary learning is a process requiring the connection of mental concepts to new word-labels. The Revised Hierarchical Model claims that beginning learners recognize the meaning of L2 words via a process of translation, needing considerable time and effort to forge direct connections between L2 words and mental concepts. However, might young children, as they are still rapidly acquiring L1 vocabulary, be able to bypass the L2-to-L1 translation required by adult L2 learners, and instead link new L2 words directly to pre-existing mental concepts? This study tested over 1,000 4th-6th graders in Japanese elementary schools on their ability to match newly learned L2 words with corresponding pictures or L1 translations. The results demonstrate that students connect L2 vocabulary to pictures more quickly, and this effect becomes more robust when students are taught via pictures, which suggests that young learners are indeed capable of accessing concepts without translating from their L1. 語彙学習とは学習者の脳内に存在する概念を新しい語彙に連結するという過程である。改訂階層モデルによると、初級者は翻訳という過程を経ることで第二言語(L2)での意味を認識する。そのため、L2語彙と脳内概念への直接連結するにはかなりの時間と努力を要する。しかし、まだ急速に第一言語(L1)語彙習得過程にある子どもたちはどうだろうか。成人学習者が必要とするL2からL1への翻訳を介さずに、脳内概念とL2語彙へ直接連結することが可能なのではないだろうか。本研究では四年生から六年生の日本人小学生千人以上を対象に、新出L2語彙を対応する絵または日本語へ照合する能力について検証した。結果として、L2語彙に対応する日本語への照合よりもイメージへの照合がより早く行われ、またこの効果が絵を用いて教わった場合により強く見られた。このことから、年齢が低い学習者はL1への翻訳することなしに脳内に存在する概念にアクセス可能であることが示唆できる。

Navigating Foreign Language Teaching Anxiety: Insights from Pre-Service Teachers during Teacher Professional Education Practicum

This study focuses on the experiences of pre-service teachers that may trigger anxiety and delve into the potential benefits and effectiveness of FLTA in enhancing language acquisition and proficiency. By conducting in-depth studies and investigations on this topic, researchers look at the impact of FLTA. They can better understand how FLTA can optimize their problem-solving skills to facilitate language learning and provide valuable insight for language education, especially in EFL classrooms. This study used a narrative strategy to investigate the pre-service EFL teachers' experiences with teaching foreign language anxiety during their teaching practice while enrolled in the Teacher Profession Education Program. The subjects of this study were 3 English pre-service teachers who had completed teaching practice in junior and senior high schools during a professional teaching program in the city of Solo and its surroundings, Central Java, Indonesia. As a result of this study, several sources contributed to participants' experience of teaching foreign language anxiety, such as self-perception of language proficiency, leading inexperience, lack of student interest, fear of negative evaluation, and lack of time and class management. Participants in the teaching practicum also attempt to confront and overcome their worries; the strategies are personal coping strategies, professional coping strategies, social coping strategies, and institutional coping strategies. Although the participants experienced some anxiety while teaching practicum, they overcame it through various strategies. So, leading practicum activities from one meeting to the following allowed participants to develop their abilities and overcome their concerns about teaching in the EFL classroom.

Bridging Technology and Language Learning: A Comprehensive Analysis of CALL Integration within Second Language Acquisition

The imperative need for understanding the role of CALL in SLA, as well as its effectiveness, is at the heart of discussions and conferences worldwide about CALL and SLA. The link between CALL and SLA has become closely correlated and more powerful. Therefore, it has become much easier for educators and specialists in the field of education and second language acquisition to notice the huge diversity of links between CALL and SLA. Thus, any discussion about the development of SLA approaches and methods without considering the effect and the integration of CALL would be incomplete. The purpose of this paper is to open such a discussion. The real driving objectives of this article are to delve into and analyze the role of CALL in SLA as well as its effectiveness and challenges, shed light on the historical background of CALL, and the common and recent theories dealing with the integration of CALL in SLA. This article also discusses the implications of integrating CALL in SLA and provides some recommendations.

Metalinguistic awareness as a factor in contact-induced language change

Abstract This opinion paper considers the role of metalinguistic awareness as a cognitive factor in contact-induced change (CIC). Although research in neighboring fields – for example, language pedagogy and second and third language acquisition – has shown that metalinguistic awareness is a non-structural factor, but does interact with cross-linguistic influences, metalinguistic awareness and its connection to CIC have largely remained undiscussed in contact linguistics. The goal of this contribution is threefold: (i) to put metalinguistic awareness on the agenda in language contact research; (ii) to relate metalinguistic awareness and CIC; and (iii) to showcase how CIC might be linked to different language experiences. To narrow the structural scope, I examine changes in passive constructions and discuss what role metalinguistic awareness might have played in the different developments.

Prelingually Deaf Children With Cochlear Implants Show Better Perception of Voice Cues and Speech in Competing Speech Than Postlingually Deaf Adults With Cochlear Implants.

Postlingually deaf adults with cochlear implants (CIs) have difficulties with perceiving differences in speakers' voice characteristics and benefit little from voice differences for the perception of speech in competing speech. However, not much is known yet about the perception and use of voice characteristics in prelingually deaf implanted children with CIs. Unlike CI adults, most CI children became deaf during the acquisition of language. Extensive neuroplastic changes during childhood could make CI children better at using the available acoustic cues than CI adults, or the lack of exposure to a normal acoustic speech signal could make it more difficult for them to learn which acoustic cues they should attend to. This study aimed to examine to what degree CI children can perceive voice cues and benefit from voice differences for perceiving speech in competing speech, comparing their abilities to those of normal-hearing (NH) children and CI adults. CI children's voice cue discrimination (experiment 1), voice gender categorization (experiment 2), and benefit from target-masker voice differences for perceiving speech in competing speech (experiment 3) were examined in three experiments. The main focus was on the perception of mean fundamental frequency (F0) and vocal-tract length (VTL), the primary acoustic cues related to speakers' anatomy and perceived voice characteristics, such as voice gender. CI children's F0 and VTL discrimination thresholds indicated lower sensitivity to differences compared with their NH-age-equivalent peers, but their mean discrimination thresholds of 5.92 semitones (st) for F0 and 4.10 st for VTL indicated higher sensitivity than postlingually deaf CI adults with mean thresholds of 9.19 st for F0 and 7.19 st for VTL. Furthermore, CI children's perceptual weighting of F0 and VTL cues for voice gender categorization closely resembled that of their NH-age-equivalent peers, in contrast with CI adults. Finally, CI children had more difficulties in perceiving speech in competing speech than their NH-age-equivalent peers, but they performed better than CI adults. Unlike CI adults, CI children showed a benefit from target-masker voice differences in F0 and VTL, similar to NH children. Although CI children's F0 and VTL voice discrimination scores were overall lower than those of NH children, their weighting of F0 and VTL cues for voice gender categorization and their benefit from target-masker differences in F0 and VTL resembled that of NH children. Together, these results suggest that prelingually deaf implanted CI children can effectively utilize spectrotemporally degraded F0 and VTL cues for voice and speech perception, generally outperforming postlingually deaf CI adults in comparable tasks. These findings underscore the presence of F0 and VTL cues in the CI signal to a certain degree and suggest other factors contributing to the perception challenges faced by CI adults.

Selection and Increasing Complexity in Evolution

This paper explores the concept of complexity in the evolution of life and human culture, proposing that the overarching increase in complexity is driven by the fundamental mechanism of selection. From the origin of life to contemporary human culture, selection plays a pivotal role in favoring complexity in reproductive processes and cultural expressions. The paper distinguishes two main phases of life on Earth: the emergence and evolution of life and animals, and the subsequent emergence of the human species with its complex cultural expressions. Despite apparent differences, both phases are argued to be guided by the same fundamental mechanism—selection, taking various forms such as adaptive natural selection, non-adaptive selection, sexual selection, and memetic selection. The paper identifies the acquisition of language as a crucial development, influenced by imitation and sexual selection, and suggests that the strong selective pressure for language has driven the rapid growth of the human brain and intelligence. This enhanced intelligence, in turn, has played a pivotal role in cultural, scientific, and technological achievements marked by unprecedented levels of complexity. The role of memetic selection is explored in the dissemination of religion across human societies, and the unintended consequences of Martin Luther's introduction of literacy and schooling for Western culture are examined. By integrating evolutionary principles with cultural and linguistic insights, this paper offers a comprehensive perspective on the unifying force of selection in the evolution of complexity in life and human culture.

The Predictability of Naturalistic Evaluation of All-Day Recordings for Speech and Language Development.

The study aimed to investigate the predictive potential of language environment and vocal development status measures obtained through integrated analysis of Language ENvironment Analysis (LENA) recordings during the prelinguistic stage for subsequent speech and language development in Korean-acquiring children. Specifically, this study explored whether measures from both LENA-automated analysis and human coding at 6-8 months and 12-14 months of age predict vocabulary and phonological development at 18-20 months. One-day home recordings from 20 children were collected using a LENA recorder at 6-8 months, 12-14 months, and 18-20 months. Both LENA-automated measures and measures from human coding were obtained from recordings at 6-8 months and 12-14 months. The number of different words, consonant inventory, and utterance structure inventory were identified from recordings of 18-20 months. Correlation and multiple regression analyses were performed to investigate whether measures related to early language environment and child vocalization at 6-8 months and 12-14 months were predictive of vocabulary and phonological measures at 18-20 months. The results showed that the two main LENA-automated measures, conversational turn count (CTC) and child vocalization count, were positively correlated with all vocabulary and phonological measures at 18-20 months. Multiple regression analysis revealed that CTC during the prelinguistic stages was the most significant predictor of a number of different words, consonant inventory, and utterance structure inventory at 18-20 months. Also, adult word count in LENA-automated measures, child-directed speech ratio, and canonical babbling ratio measured by human coding significantly predicted some vocabulary and phonological measures at 18-20 months. This study highlights the multifaceted nature of language acquisition and collectively emphasizes the value of considering both quantitative and qualitative aspects of language input to understand early language development in children.

Babbling opens the sensory phase for imitative vocal learning

Zebra finches, a species of songbirds, learn to sing by creating an auditory template through the memorization of model songs (sensory learning phase) and subsequently translating these perceptual memories into motor skills (sensorimotor learning phase). It has been traditionally believed that babbling in juvenile birds initiates the sensorimotor phase while the sensory phase of song learning precedes the onset of babbling. However, our findings challenge this notion by demonstrating that testosterone-induced premature babbling actually triggers the onset of the sensory learning phase instead. We reveal that juvenile birds must engage in babbling and self-listening to acquire the tutor song as the template. Notably, the sensory learning of the template in songbirds requires motor vocal activity, reflecting the observation that prelinguistic babbling in humans plays a crucial role in auditory learning for language acquisition.

Creating a foreign language environment by organizing extracurricular activities in a non-linguistic university as one of the ways of implementing Stephen Krashen’s natural approach to foreign language acquisition

   The relevance of the study is predetermined by the insufficiency of the number of foreign language classes in a non-language university for the effective acquiring of communicative competences by students and the fulfillment of educational and profession orientation goals in the classroom. Our hypothesis is that the creation of a language environment by organizing extracurricular activities of cultural, educational and professional value is an effective way of organizing the learning process, corresponding to the theory of natural language acquisition by «exposure to comprehensibleand compelling input».   The aim of the study is to describe a model of organizing such a language environment and its advantages in the framework of Stephen Krashen's hypotheses. In our research we use the methods of monitoring, literature analysis, synthesis and deduction.   As a result of our work, we have come to the conclusion that a diverse language environment created by organizing various additional activities is an excellent means of forming communicative competences of students throughout the period of study at the university, it contributes to the formation of professional motivation and background knowledge, as well as to the upbringing of a citizen who is not only proud of his country but is also able to present it decently at the international level.

Linguistic Reflection in Children with Different Language Acquisition Strategies (Based on the Study of Spontaneous Speech)

This article presents the results of a case study of linguistic reflection among children with different language acquisition strategies based on the analysis of spontaneous speech recordings obtained from them. A distinction was made between linguistic reflection and metalinguistic activity. It was found that the ability to reflect on language develops gradually in children with different strategies of language acquisition. The important role of metalinguistic activity in speech ontogenesis, regardless of language acquisition strategies, was highlighted, as it was exhibited by all the participants. Furthermore, linguistic reflection proved to be group-specific: each group (boys/girls, referential/expressive children) showed unique patterns and trends. It was also revealed that children under the age of five and a half years are more likely to engage in linguistic reflection when they are referential rather than expressive. The same trend was observed in girls compared to boys. 

Review of Cognitive Individual Differences in Second Language Acquisition

Cognitive Individual Differences in Second Language Acquisition (Theories, Assessment and Pedagogy) by Zhisheng (Edward) Wen, Richard L. Sparks, Adriana Biedroń, Mark Feng Teng, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-1-61451-676-7.

Statistics versus semantics: retreating from the dative overgeneralization errors by Chinese EFL learners

Abstract This study investigated the effects of entrenchment, preemption, verb semantics, and morphophonological constraints in Chinese EFL (English as a Foreign Language) learners’ retreat from the overgeneralization errors of English dative alternations. Two groups of Chinese EFL learners rated the acceptability of 66 dative verbs in their well and ill forms. The results demonstrated that Chinese EFL learners were simultaneously sensitive to the multiple cues from entrenchment, preemption, semantic, and morphophonological constraints, indicating that Chinese EFL learners restricted the generalization of the dative alternation by utilizing both the statistical verb-bias information and semantic properties of the dative verbs. Moreover, the sensitivity of Chinese EFL learners to these constraints increases with the improvement of their English proficiency. These results validated the usage-based approaches to second language acquisition and provided an answer to the “Baker’s Paradox.”

Complex adaptive interventions: The challenge ahead for instructed second language acquisition research

Abstract The effects of deliberately and selectively manipulating instructional conditions are at the heart of instructed second language acquisition (ISLA) research and, ideally, are designed to inform practice. Knowing how an intervention works, by what mechanisms and processes the treatment is beneficial—and for whom—are complex questions. In this piece, we problematize intervention-based research paradigms that do not account for context, individuals and their proactivity, or temporal variation. We highlight several key challenges that remain for ISLA research and propose a more reflexive approach to intervention that attends to these central considerations in implementing study designs.

Reflecting on the use of response times to index linguistic knowledge in SLA

Abstract Response times (RTs) have become ubiquitous in second language acquisition (SLA) research, providing empirical evidence for the theorization of the language learning process. Recently, there have been discussions of some fundamental psychometric properties of RT data, including, but not limited to, their reliability and validity. In this light, we take a step back to reflect on the use of RT data to tap into linguistic knowledge in SLA. First, we offer a brief overview of how RT data are most commonly used as vocabulary and grammar measures. We then point out three key limitations of such uses, namely that (a) RT data can lack substantive importance without considerations of accuracy, (b) RT differences may or may not be a satisfactory psychometric individual difference measure, and (c) some tasks designed to elicit RT data may not be sufficiently fine-grained to target specific language processes. Our overarching goal is to enhance the awareness among SLA researchers of these issues when interpreting RT results and stimulate research endeavors that delve into the unique properties of RT data when used in our field.

The Role of Age Variables in Family Language Policy

Family language policy (FLP) provides a critical framework to explain the planning of language use in the home. It constitutes a dynamic construct that sheds light on variations in the language acquisition of bilingual children, potentially explaining the shifts that may occur in language dominance and preference. The environment and life experiences are thought to shape FLP, yet little is known about the function of age. This study examines the association of FLP with children’s chronological age and the age they become bilingual. Data were collected via questionnaires from parents and their bilingual children (n = 82) aged 5.08–14.08 (M = 8.98, SD = 3.27) speaking English (heritage language) and Hebrew (societal language). Correlations and logistic regressions indicate a relationship between FLP and dimensions of age. Findings reveal that age may have repercussions for parent language beliefs, patterns of language use within the home, and the adoption of language promotion strategies. Younger children and children with a later age of onset of bilingualism are associated with families who lean towards a pro-heritage language FLP. Considering dimensions of age enhances our understanding of FLP and may offer a greater insight into how languages are supported in the bilingual home.

Anglicyzmy w konfrontatywnym nauczaniu języka rosyjskiego

Russian language acquisition by Polish students is understood as effective and appropriate interaction in various conversational situations. This requires specific habits in the use of the contemporary Russian linguistic system. The use of a language can be examined in a natural communicative situation, which needs informal, spoken language. The usage of English loanwords in spoken Polish and Russian is frequent, which is why the characteristics of spoken language in contemporary spoken Russian and Polish needs to be examined. Research conducted on a group of Polish, Russian, Belorussian and Ukrainian Youtubers shows that their speech contains some specific derivatives which are characteristic of colloquial Russian and Polish. It also contains groups of English loanwords: assimilated nouns, verb and adjective derivatives with productive suffixes. The study shows that English loanword adaptation differs in Polish and Russian, which reveals system differences between two related languages. Comparison of the most productive word formation processes in Russian and Polish can help to overcome language interference and improve the teaching of Russian to Polish students in general.

Memory as a Universal Thinking Machine

The present article is designed to reassess the intrinsic values of using memory in the process of language acquisition and language learning, with a focus on the four skills – reading, writing, listening, and speaking – as the building blocks in achieving the best communication goals. According to researchers like Mary Carruthers, Janine Rider, or Lambert Schenkel, there are people who possess a retentive memory, and others who excel in the power of memory. One way or another, memory gives us the ability that generates knowledge, and, by the same token, enables us to speak, read, and write effectively and logically. The sustaining pillars of this monumental edifice are, as touted by medieval thinkers, the concept of memory as a universal thinking machine, as well as (according to more recent researchers) the power of working memory, which can work wonders when we know how to hold and manipulate knowledge. The study of memory from a historical perspective and reflected in world literature can give us an exhaustive frame of reference and the benefits that result in turning accumulated knowledge into accumulated learning.

A Comprehensive Study to Build Immersive Virtual Reality-Powered Language Learning

In the rapidly evolving landscape of education technology, this project explores the integration of Immersive Virtual Reality (IVR) to revolutionize language learning experiences. Leveraging the power of virtual reality, this innovative approach aims to provide a dynamic and immersive language acquisition platform that transcends traditional methods. The project focuses on creating a virtual environment where language learners can engage with authentic scenarios, fostering practical language application and cultural understanding. Users will navigate through lifelike settings, interact with virtual native speakers, and participate in real-world conversations, thus enhancing their linguistic proficiency in a contextualized manner. Key features include personalized learning paths, adaptive challenges, and gamified elements to sustain user motivation and accommodate diverse learning styles. The incorporation of artificial intelligence ensures tailored feedback, tracking individual progress, and dynamically adjusting the learning curriculum to suit each user's proficiency level. The virtual reality language learning experience is designed to be accessible and user-friendly, catering to a broad demographic. Emphasis is placed on creating a sense of presence and cultural immersion, allowing learners to develop language skills in an environment that mirrors real-life scenarios. Through a combination of cutting-edge virtual reality technology, linguistic expertise, and pedagogical principles, this project aspires to redefine language education. The research and development aim to assess the efficacy of this immersive approach, comparing learning outcomes with traditional methods, with a vision to contribute to the ongoing discourse on the future of education technology and language acquisition.

Children's speech, language and communication skills and parental knowledge in the growing up in New Zealand cohort.

There is a substantial discrepancy between international and local prevalence rates for speech, language and communication needs (SLCN) amongst children in New Zealand. Reports of communication impairment are likely to be underestimates. Prevalence data can describe population characteristics and inform the scope and nature of services to adequately meet demand. Parents and other caregivers are central to the early identification of children with communication needs but they may not recognise their child's needs or act on their concerns. Cross-sectional data were available for the Growing Up in New Zealand (GUiNZ) longitudinal study cohort at 24, 54 and 72 months of age, with 76% of whānau (families; n = 5241) completing three data waves. Descriptive and chi-square analyses were used to address: (1) What are the communication abilities of children in the first 5 years of life? (2) What do New Zealand parents understand of their children's communication? (3) Do New Zealand parents have concerns? (4) What are the trajectories of parental concern for children's communication in the first 6 years of life? At 24 months old, 16% of children had communication skills that were of concern to their parents. At 54 months, there were concerns for 12.6% of children. Although most parents were able to describe their child's expressive abilities, many parents remained unconcerned when their child demonstrated communication skills that did not met developmental expectations. Parents can offer valuable insights about their children, but in many cases their level of concern about SLCN did not align with a professional view which reflects a more nuanced understanding of children's speech and language and the impact on future communication skills and needs. Increased awareness through public health messaging specifically regarding lifelong influences of communication challenges will aid in prevention, early detection and intervention. What is already known on this subject Parent's expectations of child speech and language development will inform how responsive they are to difficulties in their child. Appropriate parental concern is key to recognition of children with speech, language and communication needs that warrant referral to a professional. What this paper adds to existing knowledge Parents are aware of expressive language skills that children acquire and can accurately identify their children's skills but have less knowledge of the ages of acquisition. Some parents are not concerned, do not seek support despite recognisable difficulties, and demonstrate limited understanding of the future consequences for children with communication needs that are unmet. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? Public health messaging should include both skills and age ranges for speech and language acquisition. Additionally, educating the public of the impact of speech, language and communication skills on children's futures is needed.